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However, over time, in places such as Egypt, the Mamluk forces became linked to existing power structures and gained significant amounts of influence on those powers. In Egypt, studies have shown that mamluks from Georgia retained their native language , were aware of the politics of the Caucasus region , and received frequent visits from their parents or other relatives.
In addition, they sent gifts to family members or gave money to build useful structures a defensive tower, or even a church in their native villages. Throughout the past centuries, Egypt was controlled by the rulers notably the Ikhshidids , Fatimids , and Ayyubids. Throughout these dynasties, thousands of Mamluk servants and guards continued to be used, and even took high offices. This increasing level of influence among the Mamluk worried the Ayyubids in particular. Eventually a Mamluk rose to become sultan. He believed that after they were taken from their families, then they became renegades.
By Saladin's brother Al-Adil succeeded in securing control over the whole empire by defeating and killing or imprisoning his brothers and nephews in turn.
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With each victory Al-Adil incorporated the defeated Mamluk retinue into his own. This process was repeated at Al-Adil's death in , and at his son Al-Kamil's death in The Ayyubids became increasingly surrounded by the Mamluks, who acted semi-autonomously as regional atabegs. The Mamluks increasingly became involved in the internal court politics of the kingdom itself as various factions used them as allies.
After the Egyptian troops retreated at first, the sultan had more than 50 commanders hanged as deserters.
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When the Egyptian sultan as-Salih Ayyub died, the power passed briefly to his son al-Muazzam Turanshah and then his favorite wife Shajar al-Durr , a Turk according to most historians, while others say was an Armenian. She took control with Mamluk support and launched a counterattack against the French. Troops of the Bahri commander Baibars defeated Louis's troops. The king delayed his retreat too long and was captured by the Mamluks in March He agreed to pay a ransom of , livres tournois to gain release , livres were never paid.
Because of political pressure for a male leader, Shajar married the Mamluk commander, Aybak. He was assassinated in his bath. In the ensuing power struggle, viceregent Qutuz , also a mamluk, took over. He formally founded the Mamluke Sultanate and the Bahri mamluk dynasty. The first Mamluk dynasty was named Bahri after the name of one of the regiments , the Bahriyyah or River Island regiment.
Its name referred to their center on Rhoda Island in the Nile. The regiment consisted mainly of Kipchaks and Cumans. There he was welcomed by Sultan Qutuz. Qutuz had Hulagu's envoys killed and, with Baibars' help, mobilized his troops. He left his lieutenant, the Christian Kitbuqa , in charge with a token force of about 18, men as a garrison. After this great triumph, Qutuz was assassinated by conspiring Mamluks. It was widely said that Baibars, who seized power, had been involved in the assassination plot.
In the following centuries, the Mamluks ruled discontinuously, with an average span of seven years. The Mamluks defeated the Ilkhanates a second time in the First Battle of Homs and began to drive them back east. In the process they consolidated their power over Syria, fortified the area, and formed mail routes and diplomatic connections among the local princes.
Baibars' troops attacked Acre in , captured Caesarea in , and took Antioch in They were defeated by the Ilkhanates and their Christian allies at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in Finally, the Ilkhanates and the Mamluks signed a treaty of peace in By the late fourteenth century, the majority of the Mamluk ranks were made up of Circassians from the North Caucasus region, whose young males had been frequently captured for slavery.
The name "Burji" referred to their center at the citadel of Cairo. The dynasty officials were composed mostly of Circassians. Barkuk became an enemy of Timur , who threatened to invade Syria. Timur invaded Syria, defeating the Mamluk army, and he sacked Aleppo and captured Damascus. The Ottoman sultan, Bayezid I , then invaded Syria. Frequently facing rebellions by local emirs , he was forced to abdicate in In , Egypt was attacked by the Kingdom of Cyprus , but the Egyptians forced the Cypriotes to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Egyptian sultan Barsbay.
During Barsbay's reign, Egypt's population became greatly reduced from what it had been a few centuries before; it had one-fifth the number of towns. Al-Ashraf came to power in He had friendly relations with the Ottoman Empire, which captured Constantinople later that year, causing great rejoicings in Muslim Egypt.
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However, under the reign of Khushqadam , Egypt began a struggle with the Ottoman sultanate. Bayezid II seized Adana , Tarsus and other places within Egyptian territory, but was eventually defeated. Qaitbay also tried to help the Muslims in Spain , who were suffering after the Catholic Reconquista , by threatening the Christians in Syria, but he had little effect in Spain. There he attacked the fleets that carried freight and Muslim pilgrims from India to the Red Sea , and struck terror into the potentates all around.
Various engagements took place. Cairo's Mamluk sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri was affronted at the attacks around the Red Sea, the loss of tolls and traffic, the indignities to which Mecca and its port were subjected, and above all for losing one of his ships.
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He vowed vengeance upon Portugal, first sending monks from the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as envoys, he threatened Pope Julius II that if he did not check Manuel I of Portugal in his depredations on the Indian Sea, he would destroy all Christian holy places. They wanted a fleet to be armed in the Red Sea that could protect their important trading sea routes from Portuguese attacks.
Jeddah was soon fortified as a harbor of refuge so Arabia and the Red Sea were protected. But the fleets in the Indian Ocean were still at the mercy of the enemy. The last Mamluk sultan, Al-Ghawri, fitted out a fleet of 50 vessels. As Mamluks had little expertise in naval warfare, he sought help from the Ottomans to develop this naval enterprise. But, in the following year, the Portuguese won the Battle of Diu and wrested the port city of Diu from the Gujarat Sultanate.
Some years after, Afonso de Albuquerque attacked Aden , and Egyptian troops suffered disaster from the Portuguese in Yemen. Al-Ghawri fitted out a new fleet to punish the enemy and protect the Indian trade. Before it could exert much power, Egypt had lost its sovereignty.
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It arose out of the relations with the Safavid dynasty in Persia. Shah Ismail I sent an embassy to the Republic of Venice via Syria, inviting Venice to ally with Persia and recover its territory taken by the Ottomans.
Mameluk Egyptian sultan Al-Ghawri was charged by Selim I with giving the Persian envoys passage through Syria on their way to Venice and harboring refugees. To appease him, Al-Ghawri placed in confinement the Venetian merchants then in Syria and Egypt, but after a year released them. After the Battle of Chaldiran in , Selim attacked the bey of Dulkadirids , as Egypt's vassal had stood aloof, and sent his head to Al-Ghawri.
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Now secure against Persia, in he formed a great army for the conquest of Egypt, but gave out that he intended further attacks on Persia. In , Selim began the war which led to the conquest of Egypt and its dependencies. Mamluk cavalry proved no match for the Ottoman artillery and Janissary infantry. Syria passed into Turkish possession, an event welcomed in many places as it was seen as deliverance from the Mamelukes. Although not in the same form as under the Sultanate, the Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as an Egyptian ruling class and the Mamluks and the Burji family succeeded in regaining much of their influence, but as vassals of the Ottomans.
However, the Ottomans crushed the movement and retained their position after his defeat.
By this time new slave recruits were introduced from Georgia in the Caucasus. In , the ruling Directory of the Republic of France authorised a campaign in "The Orient" to protect French trade interests and undermine Britain's access to India. The Mamluks relied on massed cavalry charges, changed only by the addition of muskets. The French infantry formed square and held firm. Despite multiple victories and an initially successful expedition into Syria, mounting conflict in Europe and the earlier defeat of the supporting French fleet by the British Royal Navy at the Battle of the Nile decided the issue.
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On 7 January the previous order was canceled and the squadron reduced to men. The list of effectives on 21 April reveals three officers and of other rank. Napoleon left with his personal guard in late Isolated and out of supplies, Menou surrendered to the British in After the departure of French troops in the Mamluks continued their struggle for independence; this time against the Ottoman Empire and Great Britain.
In , Mamluk leaders Ibrahim Bey and Osman Bey al-Bardisi wrote to the Russian consul-general, asking him to mediate with the Sultan to allow them to negotiate for a cease-fire, and a return to their homeland Georgia. The Russian ambassador in Constantinople refused however to intervene, because of nationalist unrest in Georgia that might have been encouraged by a Mamluk return.
In , the population of Cairo rebelled. This provided a chance for the Mamluks to seize power, but internal friction prevented them from exploiting this opportunity. In , the Mamluks defeated the Turkish forces in several clashes. However, they were again unable to capitalize on this opportunity due to discord between factions. Muhammad Ali retained his authority. Muhammad Ali knew that he would have to deal with the Mamluks if he wanted to control Egypt.
They were still the feudal owners of Egypt and their land was still the source of wealth and power. However, the economic strain of sustaining the military manpower necessary to defend the Mamluks's system from the Europeans and Turks would eventually weaken them to the point of collapse. On 1 March , Muhammad Ali invited all of the leading Mamluks to his palace to celebrate the declaration of war against the Wahhabis in Arabia. Between and Mamluks paraded for this purpose in Cairo.