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Table 1: Oxides useful in determining origins of soda-lime-silica glasses. Plant-ash glasses MgO c. They are small wound beads of transparent-to-translucent glass. Most are ruby-red, but a few amber colored and one emerald green specimen have been recovered. Thirty-three were found at Kilwa; all other sites combined account for another Based on the chemical composition of the glass and method of manufacture, these beads would have been made in China.

Although it is possible these beads reached East Africa indirectly, comingled with other trade goods from China such as ceramics, this seems unlikely given the very limited numbers that have been found in East Africa and the circumscribed time span in which they appear. If they were arriving along with other more usual trade goods, one might expect to find them in larger quantities and over a longer period of time.

In addition, the Chinese beads were individually produced, making it unlikely they would have been able to compete with the mass-produced drawn beads from India, which were the stock-in-trade beads at this time. The translucent glass often has a satiny sheen and is softly colored in hues of gray that can be tinged with pale blue, yellow, green, or blue-green. Most are tubular to cylindrical in shape. The glass used to make the Chibuene series beads is a plant-ash type v-Na-Ca 3 that most likely was produced in the Middle East, possibly the Persian Gulf region.

These beads demonstrate that Indian Ocean trade reached far into the interior of southern Africa from an early date.

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Many can be identified by striations that run parallel to the perforation caused by rows of bubbles probably produced by working the glass at low temperatures. Transparent-to-translucent cobalt blue is the most common color, followed by opaque yellow. Opaque blue-green and green examples are relatively rare. These beads are prone to corrosion, which forms a thick whitish crust, so they are often misidentified as white. Zhizo beads are made of a plant-ash glass v-Na-Ca 1 that is similar to that of the Chibuene series and probably came from the same region.

This series is characterized by small transparent-to-translucent turquoise and blue-green drawn tubes and cylinders with heat rounded ends. A few soft green examples are also found. They are made of a mineral-soda-alumina glass m-Na-Al 2 that is very stable and often shiny, no doubt due to high levels of alumina. This type of glass was made in South Asia. It is made up of heat-rounded small to medium 2.

Colors include opaque yellow, green, brick-red, and black—there are no cobalt blue beads. Chemically they are closely related to the K2 Indo-Pacific beads and have similar origins. These beads are distinctly different, being characterized by small, uniform oblates although larger cylindrical forms are found as well, especially in outlying commoner areas.


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Most of the glass is opaque, with black being the most frequent color; yellow, dull orange, blue-green, and green are common as well. A few transparent cobalt blue and plum-colored specimens are also found. The glass used to make these beads is unusual, being a plant-ash glass with elevated levels of alumina and low lime v-Na-Al. The new beads are more cylindrical in shape and some colors have changed: one now finds a transparent emerald green as well as a translucent pale jade green, yellow is more translucent, cobalt blue less transparent and more common, and opaque brick-red beads, which are not found in the Mapungubwe Oblate series, occur.

The chemical composition of this glass v-Na-Al 19 indicates that it is closely related to the Mapungubwe Oblate series and surely originated from the same region. Khami Indo-Pacific beads are mostly cylindrical and less uniform in size and shape than any previous series except the Zhizo series. More than half fall into the medium size category 3.

Colors include opaque brick-red, yellow, orange, green, blue-green, and black. Cobalt blue beads occur as well, but they are opaque and paler in color than earlier cobalt beads from the Mapungubwe Oblate and Zimbabwe series. Also, the first beads that might be considered white are found, but they are off-white and somewhat translucent, so they cannot be confused with the opaque white beads that eventually arrived from Europe.

Khami series beads signal a return to a mineral-soda-alumina type glass m-Na-Al 2 21 and, thanks to Portuguese records as well as glass chemistry , we know they were being produced in India. During any time period one finds beads from various origins rather than from a single one as in southern Africa. As part of this diversity, East Africa received not only the simple drawn beads as found in the south but also larger wound beads of various shapes, as well as polychrome decorated beads, both drawn and wound.

In addition, the temporal boundaries in which bead types are found in East Africa are less clear, making it impossible, at least at this time, to develop a temporal sequence as has been done in the south. Because they cannot be seriated, the beads found in East Africa will be described and discussed in the section below based on the time period in which they occur See Figure 3 for examples of these beads.


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Figure 3: Comparison of southern African and East African bead types by period. Other less well-known currents and winds occur in the south and make travel there more difficult; but it is probable that southerly routes, not involving the northern monsoon system, were in use as well. As will become clear, trade patterns to the northern and southern ends of the coast differed significantly, so they will be approached separately. The islands of the Comoros and Madagascar will also be discussed. It was excavated numerous times between and 25 and provides a wealth of information about Indian Ocean trade to the region at this time.

Over 2, glass beads recovered from Chibuene bear witness to the volume of trade that passed through this ancient port, and hundreds of shards from imported vessels of both exotic ceramics and glass provide evidence of foreign visitors and inhabitants who participated in this trade. This series accounts for all but a few pre-midth century beads that have been recovered from the southern African interior. Their presence, sometimes in large numbers, at over 25 sites 28 testifies to the breadth and depth of the interior trading network and its connections with Chibuene.

As has been discussed, both of these early bead series were probably produced in the Middle East, east of the Euphrates, 29 and—as will be discussed below—were traded directly to the southern coast by merchants from Oman and the Persian Gulf region. First, far fewer glass beads have been recovered from sites in East Africa than in southern Africa.

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For example, in preth century contexts at Shanga, in the Lamu archipelago, Horton 30 reports finding 33, while at Manda, also in the Lamu archipelago, 79 were recorded, 31 and at Kilwa in southern Tanzania Chittick 32 lists only 4. It is becoming obvious, however, that this disparity may be mostly due to excavation techniques. In the south, deposits at most sites have been sieved with mesh that is 3 mm or even smaller, while deposits at many of the East Coast sites have either not been sieved or were sieved with mesh measuring 5 mm or larger.

Also, unlike the south, a wide variety of bead types have been recovered from East Coast sites, including wound and decorated beads, some of which probably came from Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean. In addition, the probable origin of the majority of these beads adds new insights into Indian Ocean trade patterns. It has been assumed that glass beads in this early period were coming from various sources, including India, the Middle East, and the Persian Gulf region, but the bulk of the Zanzibar beads appears to have come from Sri Lanka.

The majority of the beads analyzed from the and excavations are made from a mineral-soda-alumina glass m-Na-Al 1. This glass is similar to the m-Na-Al 2 glass from which the three Indo-Pacific bead series described earlier are made, but LA-ICP-MS analysis has revealed that the two glass types can be separated based on levels of several trace elements, especially uranium and barium. Several rather bright pumpkin-orange drawn beads made of m-Na-Al 1 glass were found at Unguja Ukuu—I believe this is the first time such beads have been found on the African coast.

Three types of this glass have been identified on the eastern African coast; 43 the type found at Unguja Ukuu is called v-Na-Ca 1 and is believed to have been made in the Middle East, east of the Euphrates. Zhizo series beads are made of this glass, but most of the v-Na-Ca 1 beads at Unguja Ukuu are morphologically unlike Zhizo beads, both in terms of some glass colors and details of production technique. For example, in addition to the colors found in the Zhizo series cobalt blue, yellow, blue-green, and green , the Zanzibar beads appear in brick-red, white, and black. While all of the Zhizo beads are drawn, some v-Na-Ca 1 beads from Unguja Ukuu are wound and even decorated.

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And while the ends of Zhizo beads are left untreated, almost all of the drawn Zanzibar ones have been reheated in an unusual manner: they have been reheated on a flat surface, resulting in beads with one somewhat rounded end while the other is flat. The Unguja Ukuu examples are similar to beads found at the site of a 9th to 11th-century trading and beadmaking center on the southwest coast of Thailand, known as Thung Tuk 44 [but sometimes identified as Takua-Pa].

Francis 45 identified several bead types that might have been made at Thung Tuk which are similar to ones at Unguja Ukuu, including a type of eye bead known as a Takua Pa eye bead and cobalt blue beads with white stripes. Lankton and Dussubieux 48 record that both beads and raw glass of this type are found at many South and Southeast Asian sites and note that most of the beads are drawn, suggesting they were locally made and that much of the glass was imported in raw or cullet form to be used in beadmaking or sometimes for making bangles.

Although it is obviously possible that these beads were made elsewhere, the similarities between v-Na-Ca 1 beads at Unguja Ukuu and Thung Tuk are thought-provoking and suggest further research into the parallels could be worthwhile. In either case, it is unlikely these islands acted as a transit point in the trade that brought glass beads to southern Africa. Although Radimilahy 51 reported finding glass beads in Phase Ia late-9th to 10th century contexts at Mahilaka in northwest Madagascar, subsequent research has indicated that none of the beads were found to pre-date the end of the 10th century.

During this period, trade in the western Indian Ocean was dominated by the Persian Gulf region. When political power was transferred to Baghdad in the mid-8th century, with the ascendancy of the Abbasid Caliphate, trade increased significantly 55 and thus could have played a role in the increase seen in trade to southern Africa in the form of Zhizo beads. This is the earliest evidence we have of the gold trade out of southern Africa. He also stated that Sofala was a commercial destination for ships from the Gulf region 61 and that voyages to Sofala continually increased in number owing to an increase in the demand for luxury goods at the Buyid court in Shiraz.

So where could these beads, which were most likely made by Indian artisans using glass from the Iran—Iraq region and were then carried to southern Africa on ships from the Persian Gulf region, have been manufactured? The history of the port of Sohar, in Oman near the mouth of the Gulf, may provide clues. Sohar was the dominant port in the region from the 8th century up to the ascendancy of Siraf in the mid-9th century.

But Sohar continued to be an active participant in the trade up to the midth century, when it was attacked by the Buyids. Tampoe 65 has noted that evidence of glassmaking was unearthed during excavations at Sohar, raising the possibility that Zhizo beads might have been made there; and if so, it is likely that South Asian artisans were there to produce them.